Introduction

Spanish is spoken as a foreign language by around 24 million people worldwide (Instituto Cervantes 2022: 5). In many cases, it is the second language (L2) of monolingually raised learners who acquire Spanish as a foreign language in school, e.g., in the US. However, Spanish is often the third or a further language (L3) for learners who have previously learned another foreign language (for example Spanish after English in Germany) or who acquired more than one language in early childhood, as is the case with heritage speakers.