Dependencies on Water in the Urban History of Early South Asia

Owing to a general dependence on water for the survival of humans especially in hot and arid regions, ancient as well as historic urban settlements in South Asia have regularly been founded close to natural water bodies. Traditionally, these have been rivers, which also connected these ancient centres to the sea and the Indian ocean network of trade routes. Early Indian cities depended on mercantile connections for their growth and survival. Other early settlements were established on the shores of natural or artificial lakes, which served as their water reserves. Lakes and substantial water reservoirs enabled interlinked settlements in the rural hinterland to generate a surplus production through artificial irrigation, which sustained the waterside cities. As the water of rivers, lakes and reservoirs have seasonally strongly-changeable levels and people depended on them all year round, their embankments were provided with wide and often long flights of steps (ghāṭs). Due to the non-perennial nature of many streams and lakes, urban centres were also supplied with deep wells, accessing ground water. These were further supplemented by a network of smaller shallow tanks and deep stepped water basins (kuṇḍas). This warranted a safe and continues water supply for urban populations during all seasons.