Hormones and Hormones Antagonists

Diabetes mellitus (DM) encompasses a group of metabolic disorders characterized by persistent elevation of blood sugar levels. This condition arises when the pancreas fails to produce sufficient insulin from β-cells or when insulin is ineffective in binding to its receptors, resulting in hyperglycemia. Recent surveys indicate a projected increase in the prevalence of diabetes among adults, rising from 4% in 1995 to an estimated 6.4% by 2025. Globally, it was anticipated that 537 million individuals would have diabetes in 2021, with a projected surge of 46% to 783 million by 2045. Additionally, it was forecasted that 541 million people would experience impaired glucose tolerance in 2021, with over 90% of diabetes cases being classified as type 2 diabetes (T2D). Prediabetes, a precursor to T2D, can progress by 5–10% annually. Current treatments for DM include medications such as metformin, sulfonylurea, thiazolidinedione, or DPP-4 inhibitors, although these options only offer partial control over the condition, leaving room for further advancements in treatment modalities.