Ecosystem Condition Account for Karnataka State, India

Ecosystem accounting entails estimation of the extent of different ecosystem assets (EAs) in the study region (district and federal state) using remote sensing data (acquired through space-borne sensors at regular intervals and available since the 1970s. The multi-resolution spatial data helps in assessing ecosystem extent accounts and provides an underlying infrastructure for measuring ecosystem conditions and modeling ecosystem services. The analyses of temporal data help in assessing the extent of changes in an ecosystem over time. Ecosystem condition accounts record the condition of ecosystem assets in terms of selected characteristics at specific points in time and, over time, record the changes to their condition. These changes are mainly due to human activities with economic interventions. Ecosystem condition accounts provide a structured approach for describing ecosystem assets’ characteristics by recording and aggregating data describing the dynamics of characteristics of ecosystem assets characteristics (SEEA EA). Ecosystem quality is measured in terms of its abiotic and biotic characteristics with respect to an ecosystem’s composition, structure, and function, which in turn reflect multiple values across a range of temporal and spatial scales indicating ecological integrity. An ecosystem condition account was developed considering (i) characteristics of abiotic components of an ecosystem (physical and chemical status of soil), (ii) biotic ecosystem characteristics considering compositional state (occurrence of flora and fauna species chosen as per IUCN categories of threats), structural state (vegetation–above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass of forest ecosystems), functional state (NPP: net primary productivity in forest ecosystems) and (iii) landscape-level characteristics (fragmentation of forest landscapes, LST: the land surface temperature at landscape levels) for 2005 and 2020. Landscape-level characteristics (fragmentation of forest landscapes, LST: land surface temperature at landscape levels) for 2005 and 2019 were assessed considering remote sensing data. The fragmentation analysis reveals that the spatial extent of contiguous interior forests constituted only 11,335 sq.km (5.91%) in 2019. The state has witnessed a decline in interior forests by 63.7% from 1985 to 2019. Very-density forests constitute 11,334 sq.km (5.91%), and medium-density forests are about 12,869 sq.km (6.71%). Analyses of fragmentation of forest ecosystem reveal that districts, even ecologically fragile regions–Western Ghats have been experiencing fragmentation of forests evident from the decline of contiguous intact forests to the extent of 54% (Chikkamagalur), 57.6% (Dakshina Kannada), 44% (Udupi), 41% (Uttara Kannada) and 35% (Shimoga) during 2005 to 2019. Land surface temperature (LST) estimations district-wise for Karnataka considering thermal bands–remote sensing data for 2005 and 2019 indicate a considerable increase in temperature, which could be attributed to land cover changes in the region with the decline of vegetation cover. The higher temperature can be seen especially in non-forest areas due to intensified built-up activities. The temperature rise can be attributed to high deforestation with unplanned urbanisation and industrialisation. Temporal analysis of LST indicates a rise in mean temperature over the periods. The highest temperature of 48.46 °C was found in the hot, dry semi-arid region, and the lowest was found in the hot humid of 32.46 °C. About 821,600 hectares had temperatures less than 30 ℃ (high) in 2005 compared to 485,566 hectares in 2019. Regions under the medium category (with temperatures 30–35 ℃) have increased from 2898 sq.km (2005) to 3666 sq.km (2019). The results highlight the role of biophysical variables in maintaining regional climate. The increase in temperature can induce a higher loss of species, imbalance in the ecosystem, and vegetation die-off. Proper land-use planning and restoration of degraded land through afforestation with native species would help mitigate the increase in temperature. Biotic ecosystem characteristics considering compositional state (occurrence of endemic flora and fauna species chosen as per IUCN categories of threats) show there has been a decline in the number of flora species (Critically endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near-threatened) from 3614 species (2005) to 3374 and a similar trend in the occurrence of endemic fauna species from 4243 (2005) to 3923 (2020) species. The structural state of the forest ecosystem was done through an assessment of vegetation characteristics with the computation of above-ground biomass (AGB), and below-ground biomass (BGB) of forest ecosystems, revealing a decline of 23.4% of AGB from 987,686 (2005) to 732,828 (2019) Gg and similar trend of decrease in BGB from 191,537 (2005) to 146,566 (2019) Gg. The total biomass (AGB + BGB) of forests is about 1013.7 Tg (Tera gram) with stored carbon of 506.8 Tg (in 1985), which is now reduced to 678 Tg and 339 Tg, respectively (2019). The temporal decline of AGB values in Kodagu, Shimoga, Uttara Kannada, and Dakshina Kannada districts is due to anthropogenic pressure. The Mysore, Chamrajnagara, and Bellary districts also reflect a decline in AGB values from 2005 to 2019. Karnataka Forest Department has implemented monoculture plantations in the state to protect the land under greening initiatives and sustain market demand for timber. The AGB and BGB were accounted to understand the role of plantations in arresting land degradation. The AGB for forest and plantations accounted for 1056.90 Tg (in 1985), which is now reduced to 732.83 Tg (2019). Changes in the land cover have impacted the functional state of the forest ecosystem, which was assessed through the computation of NPP (net primary productivity), indicating 15.5% decline in NPP from 17,323 Gg/yr (2005) to 14,635 Gg/yr (2019). Abiotic characteristics of the ecosystem are assessed through the physical and chemical status of soil in agricultural lands. Soil health assessment indicates that 43.7% of soil in Karnataka shows good soil quality, where 48.6% of soil in Karnataka shows medium-quality soil, while low-quality soil is found in 7.6% of the area in Karnataka. Among the chemical parameters,