Strategic Urban Air Quality Improvement: Perspectives on Public Health

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is the principal constituent behind the formulation of regional air quality index (Quarmby et al. 2019). The yearly normal convergence of PM2.5 in urban areas is genuinely increasing around the world. Epidemiological investigations have shown a causal connection between prolonged PM2.5 exposure and increased rate of respiratory sicknesses, cellular breakdown in the lungs, and stroke (Liu et al. 2021a, b, c; Li et al. 2021; Farkas et al. 2021). Rate of outpatient visit and hospitalization of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular illnesses is increased after brief repeated exposure to PM 2.5. As of now, an expanding number of analysts are worried about the imminent dangers of PM2.5 pollution and are mostly zeroing in on the reason for PM2.5 pollution (Deary and Griffiths 2021; Guarino et al. 2021; Mendoza et al. 2021). Enhanced level of PM2.5 aggravates cardiovascular and cerebrovascular illnesses (ischaemic coronary illness [IHD] and stroke) leading to untimely deaths (Korhonen et al. 2021). Liberalization and globalization bring about nonstop industrialization, and urbanization bothers air contamination. Without successful air contamination control measures, public health is put at risk (de Vries et al. 2021; Schaefer et al. 2021). The combined impact of unplanned urbanization and improper air pollution control accounts for 44–48% change in PM2.5 (Kim et al. 2013). Various studies have been conducted to investigate the distinctions between PM2.5 reduction strategy in metropolitan cities and air quality improvement (Alari et al. 2021; Margolis et al. 2021). Disorganized urbanization and indiscriminate use of motorized transport lead to severe rise in various lifestyle-related metabolic disorders like hyperglycaemia, heftiness, dyslipidaemia, and hypertension (Chen et al. 2021a, b; Gkrillas et al. 2021; Lemarchand et al. 2021). Subsequently, urban air quality is a prime concern since air contamination has been found to affect a number of health risks like respiratory sicknesses and skin disorders (Liang et al. 2021). Since air contamination has been perceived as one of the prominent threats to human health and climate resilience, numerous key ecological policies are focused on it (Liu et al. 2021c). In developed economies, the air is contaminated with toxic gases, mixtures of nitrogen and sulphur oxides and particulate matter (Stenson et al. 2021; Timonen et al. 2021). There are distinctive theoretical ways to deal with real-time air quality like ground stations of observing organizations, satellite telemonitoring and the utilization of biomonitoring (Xu et al. 2021). The capacity of plants to gather pollutants in the various organs or tissues (roots, natural products, leaves or barks) has been misused worldwide since the sixties of last century. A few anthropogenic exercises can cause significant increments in suspended molecule loads in marine conditions, for instance digging for marine navigation purpose, subsea development including the development of seaward windfarms, run-off from farming, release of metropolitan effluents, land-based mining and subsea mining exercises. Direct and indirect human interventions adversely affect the ecosystem by mixing with pollutants in the water, air and soil (Almeida 2021; Gardon et al. 2021). Air quality disturbance is correlated with various decline in socioeconomic developmental factors (Di Virgilio et al. 2021; Kocak et al. 2021). Public reports have referenced the near danger of hospitalizations and mortality associated with fine particulate air pollution. Fine and ultrafine particulate matter arrive at the circulatory system via the tracheal system. Urban air contamination largely affects the air quality and health of resident citizens (Newell et al. 2017; Evans et al. 2021; Maphutha et al. 2021). Trans-border spread of particulate pollution in winter season poses immediate health risk to the thickly populated cities as it remains in the respirable zone for longer time (Nageen et al. 2021; Sun et al. 2021). Overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization as well as industrialization issues become major problems for developing countries too. The utilization of cooking wood and cow dung for domestic cooking adds more indoor air pollutants (Carlsten et al. 2020). Around three billion individuals all throughout the planet are utilizing the plant biomass, wood and other excreta of animals for their daily cooking needs. The ladies of the family in agricultural nations inhale soots and other particulate matter emitted during household cooking (Lee et al. 2020; Deary and Griffiths 2021). India, one of the Asia’s most populated countries, is also facing rise in particulate air pollutants (Tong 2019). Rate of rise in cardiovascular sicknesses is significantly higher in developed nations as compared to developing ones. New Delhi, the national capital territory of India, is one of the most polluted metropolitan areas in India. Many flight trips all through New Delhi International Airport are frequently dropped or diverted to other nearby airports because of the decreased visibility required for flight operation due to excessive particulate matters in air in winter seasons (Carlsen et al. 2019). India is also witnessing rapid rise in quick industrialization, urbanization and use of vehicles in transport. Biomass burning for cooking is rampant in India and in Nepal leading to increased urban air pollution (Rivas-Santiago et al. 2015). Besides, very significant degrees of PM2.5 contamination are noticed in Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, trailed by Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow. Various think tanks, nongovernmental organizations and agencies have made protests and raised voice of resistance regarding the rising levels of urban air pollution and implementation of stricter health advisories time to time (Bascom et al. 1996; Boogaard and van Erp 2019).