Applications of metals and minerals are an integral part of our daily life, and their possession reflects any country’s wealth and strength. Metals: Natural elements having some specific characteristics, such as crystallization, electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, ductility, and reflectivity, are referred to as metals. Except a few native metals which occur in their native forms, most of the metals are extracted from minerals, which are naturally occurring. Solid inorganic compounds of various elements have definite chemical composition and atomic structure. Chemical elements are classified based on their atomic number and arranged in the form of periodic table. Based on chemical and physical characteristics, metals are categorized in different groups, namely: the ferrous and non-ferrous; brittle, non-brittle and refractory; white, heavy and light metals; and base, noble, and precious metals. Various metallurgical processes, such as hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, smelting, roasting, electrometallurgy, solvometallurgy, and ionometallurgy, are adopted to extract and refine the metals from their ore minerals. Two or more metals can be alloyed to improve and design desired properties of metals. The meteoric iron, copper alloys, amalgams, gold alloys, pewter, iron alloys, mangalloys, superalloys, bulk metallic glasses, shape-memory alloys, quasicrystalline alloys, complex metallic alloys, high entropy alloys, and MAX phase alloys are important of them, and classified based on their atomic structure, states of matter, and nature of metals. Minerals are made up of crystals having definite structure and lattice, and belong to a particular crystal System such as Isometric or Cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, hexagonal, triclinic, monoclinic, trigonal, or Rhombohedral crystal system under which they are formed. They have specific and unique physical, optical, and chemical properties, by which they it is identified. Crystal Habit and their twinning, texture, lustre, colour, streak, hardness, cleavage, partings, fractures, specific gravity, magnetism, tenacity, etc., are some of the important physical properties, while Colour, Refractive Index, Double refraction, or Birefringence, Pleochroism, Conoscopic Interference Pattern, Extinction, Twinning, Extinction Angle, appearance, etc., are some of the optical properties. These minerals are categories as, native elements Sulfides, Sulfates, Oxides and Hydroxides, Halides, Carbonates, Phosphates, Nitrates, Borates, Silicates, and organic minerals.

Minerals

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发表日期：

2025年

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R. K. Upadhyay

摘要

Applications of metals and minerals are an integral part of our daily life, and their possession reflects any country’s wealth and strength. Metals: Natural elements having some specific characteristics, such as crystallization, electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, ductility, and reflectivity, are referred to as metals. Except a few native metals which occur in their native forms, most of the metals are extracted from minerals, which are naturally occurring. Solid inorganic compounds of various elements have definite chemical composition and atomic structure. Chemical elements are classified based on their atomic number and arranged in the form of periodic table. Based on chemical and physical characteristics, metals are categorized in different groups, namely: the ferrous and non-ferrous; brittle, non-brittle and refractory; white, heavy and light metals; and base, noble, and precious metals. Various metallurgical processes, such as hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, smelting, roasting, electrometallurgy, solvometallurgy, and ionometallurgy, are adopted to extract and refine the metals from their ore minerals. Two or more metals can be alloyed to improve and design desired properties of metals. The meteoric iron, copper alloys, amalgams, gold alloys, pewter, iron alloys, mangalloys, superalloys, bulk metallic glasses, shape-memory alloys, quasicrystalline alloys, complex metallic alloys, high entropy alloys, and MAX phase alloys are important of them, and classified based on their atomic structure, states of matter, and nature of metals. Minerals are made up of crystals having definite structure and lattice, and belong to a particular crystal System such as Isometric or Cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, hexagonal, triclinic, monoclinic, trigonal, or Rhombohedral crystal system under which they are formed. They have specific and unique physical, optical, and chemical properties, by which they it is identified. Crystal Habit and their twinning, texture, lustre, colour, streak, hardness, cleavage, partings, fractures, specific gravity, magnetism, tenacity, etc., are some of the important physical properties, while Colour, Refractive Index, Double refraction, or Birefringence, Pleochroism, Conoscopic Interference Pattern, Extinction, Twinning, Extinction Angle, appearance, etc., are some of the optical properties. These minerals are categories as, native elements Sulfides, Sulfates, Oxides and Hydroxides, Halides, Carbonates, Phosphates, Nitrates, Borates, Silicates, and organic minerals.