Case Studies: Electrical and Electrochemical Biosensors for Antibiotic Abuse Detection

The global issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) due to antibiotic abuse highlights the need for accurate and rapid detection of antibiotics in various samples, including environmental, clinical, and food matrices. Electrical and electrochemical biosensors have gained significant attention for their sensitivity, real-time monitoring, and cost-effectiveness in detecting antibiotics. These biosensors convert biological interactions into measurable electrical signals and utilize biorecognition elements like antibodies, aptamers, enzymes, and molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), specifically binding to target antibiotics. The interactions between the bioreceptor and antibiotic alter electrical properties such as potential, impedance, and current, which are then measured and analyzed. Case studies emphasize the detection of commonly abused antibiotics, including penicillin, quinolones, sulfonamides, and tetracyclines. Advances in biosensor technology, such as the use of quantum dots, nanomaterials, and composites, have significantly improved sensitivity, selectivity, reversibility, stability, miniaturization, and detection limits: signal amplification and surface modification further sensor performance. Integrating biosensors with microfluidic systems and portable devices allows for on-site monitoring of antibiotics in complex samples like milk, urine, blood, and wastewater. Despite progress, challenges remain, including the need for multiplexed platforms to detect multiple antibiotics simultaneously and address real-world conditions, constructing the fight against AMR.