Interactive 3D Urban Geological Modeling and Visualization with Augmented Reality

Accurate, timely, and easily interpretable 3D geological information is essential for data-driven urban governance. However, conventional visualisation frameworks cannot dynamically fuse multi-scale subsurface data with rapidly evolving surface urban systems. This study presents an interactive augmented-reality (AR) environment, deployed on Microsoft HoloLens 2 head-mounted displays, that tightly couples high-fidelity geological models with real world cityscapes, enabling simultaneous inspection of surface infrastructure, subsurface utilities and stratigraphic layers in a single immersive scene. Hybrid rendering pipelines combine level-of-detail (LOD) mesh optimisation and GPU-aware adaptive shading, reducing model-loading time by 25%, maintaining Toolbox response times below 1.5 s, and reducing GPU load by 38%. Multimodal voice and gesture interactions significantly lower the expertise threshold for domain specialists and the public. A controlled user study (n = 35) yielded an average satisfaction score of 4.4 out of 5 and a System Usability Scale rating of 82.4, confirming high engagement and efficiency. By transforming static geological archives into actionable 3D spatial knowledge, the platform advances participatory planning, risk-aware construction and evidence-based urban management, underscoring AR’s role in accelerating sustainable city development.