Water, energy, and resources play a crucial role in achieving sustainability, stimulating economic growth, and promoting societal development [1, 2]. Covering over two-thirds of Earth’s surface, water bodies hold immense potential for producing clean water, sustainable energy, and metal resources [3]. Clean water, essential for human survival and development, is potable water sourced without health risks or contaminants. Despite the vast appearance of global water sources such as seas and rivers, usable clean water remains scarce [4, 5]. Only 3% of the world’s water is fresh, with the rest trapped in oceans or locked in icecaps and glaciers, leaving less than 1% available for human use. This restricted supply satisfies almost 80% of the world’s demand of clean water. Presently, 2.1 billion people encounter shortages of safe water, and by 2025, it is anticipated that more than half of the global population will experience significant water stress (Fig. 1.1) [6].