Forested areas on private urban land are uncommon because of past extensive land clearing and urban landscape fragmentation. Most of the literature on private forested areas has focused on large, non-urban landholdings. Nevertheless, the same protective mechanisms may apply to urban land, and some literature has considered their application to peri-urban land. Broadly, the types of regulatory mechanism for protection of forested areas are by way of covenant or by the imposition and enforcement of land use restrictions. Conservation covenants are an agreement to preserve and manage a land area for conservation. These agreements are permanent and arguably reduce the economic value of the land. In Australia, conservation covenants are not well used, even where tax benefits may result. The other type of mechanism is where land use is restricted for reasons relevant to the particular forested area. These include the protection of biodiversity, the protection of native vegetation and the protection of cultural or natural heritage. Biodiversity protections apply where threatened species or ecosystems are at risk. Native vegetation is subject to statutory prohibitions on unauthorised clearing in all states and territories. Protection of natural or cultural heritage includes forested areas and trees, and is particularly relevant to the protection of Indigenous heritage values.