This review presents a detailed exploration of recent advancements in thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD), with a particular focus on inorganic phosphor materials. Thermoluminescence, the light emitted by a material when heated after exposure to ionizing radiation, plays a vital role in measuring radiation doses. In this study, a wide array of phosphors—spanning chemical families such as aluminates, borates, fluorides, phosphates, silicates, sulfides, and titanates—are examined in terms of their synthesis techniques, structural characteristics, and suitability for radiation detection. Special attention is given to essential dosimetric attributes, including glow curve profiles, dose–response behavior, sensitivity, fading resistance, and biological tissue equivalence. Additionally, the article sheds light on the applications of these materials across various domains, such as medical, environmental, space, and personal radiation monitoring. By compiling insights from numerous studies, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and professionals seeking to optimize the performance of TLD materials for specific applications.