Biological Energy Transformation

Energy conversion is a basic requirement for organic life. Many prokaryotes (archaea and bacteria) exploit electrochemical imbalances of inorganic elements or molecules for energy supply. These processes of chemoautotrophy are directly connected with modifications of inorganic chemical compounds creating the habitability of Earth in geological time scales and supporting eukaryotes with mineral nutrients in short time scales. Phototrophy—exploitation of photon energy—evolved in different forms in chemoautotrophs and extended as photosynthesis substantially the potentials for biological energy conversion together with an revolutionary change of environmental conditions by emission of oxygen-molecules. Consortia of prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes optimize as microbiomes the conversion of energy at boundaries between solid surfaces and water or air from hydrothermal vents to the intestine walls of animals. Embodied energy in multicellular organisms is transferred to mechanical energy as osmotic or—via motile biomolecules—muscle forces. Motion requires counterforces provided by elastic tissues or exo- and endoskeletons.