In view of the rapid propagation of thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries in extreme fast charging scenarios, the delayed response of traditional cooling systems and insufficient temperature control capabilities, this study focuses on the thermal-electric coupling failure mechanism of battery modules and the need to suppress heat spread in high-power charging conditions, and systematically proposes a comprehensive solution that integrates thermal runaway propagation blocking and dynamic cooling collaborative optimization. First, based on multi-scale thermal runaway propagation experiments and simulation analysis, a gradient composite insulation layer design strategy is proposed. Secondly, an adaptive cooling system based on a multi-physics field coupling model is developed to achieve multi-dimensional precise temperature control from single cells to modules. Finally, a 1.2 C-4 C multi-rate fast charging experimental platform is built. The results show that in 4 C continuous fast charging cycle, the system can control the maximum temperature rise below 42.3 °C, which is 31.7% lower than the traditional liquid cooling solution; the thermal runaway blocking module successfully limits the heat spread range to 3 single cells, and the cooling system response time is shortened to 0.8 s. Research has confirmed that the proposed collaborative control method exhibits significant thermal management robustness under extreme operating conditions, providing an innovative technical path for the engineering application of high-safety fast-charging battery systems.