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This study presents a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) and levelized cost of storage (LCOS) analysis of primary-use and secondary-use lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries in grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS), using California as a representative case. A cradle-to-grave scope is adopted to evaluate environmental impacts, including global warming potential (GWP) and water scarcity footprint (WF), alongside economic performance. Both LCA and LCOS assessments are harmonized to a common functional unit (FU) of 1 kWh of electricity delivered to the grid over the system lifetime. Results show that while secondary-use batteries exhibit lower energy delivery efficiency and higher GWP per kWh delivered, they outperform primary batteries in water footprint and remain cost-competitive, with an LCOS of 0.422 \(\$/\text{kWhe}\) compared to 0.438 \(\$/\text{kWhe}\) for new batteries. Uncertainty and sensitivity analyses showed that round-trip efficiency (RTE) and depth of discharge (DoD) are the most influential parameters for energy output and losses, while rated storage duration is the most influential factor for LCOS. Grid emissions dominate GWP, while precursor production governs WF results. These findings demonstrate that ESS is an economically promising second-life application for repurposed LFP batteries, highlighting the importance of regional electricity mix in shaping sustainability outcomes.

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Life Cycle Assessment and Levelized Cost of Storage of Secondary- and Primary-Use LFP Batteries for Energy Storage Systems

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  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年

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  • Wenxin Yang,
  • Xinyuan Wang,
  • Maximilian Schüler

摘要

This study presents a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) and levelized cost of storage (LCOS) analysis of primary-use and secondary-use lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries in grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS), using California as a representative case. A cradle-to-grave scope is adopted to evaluate environmental impacts, including global warming potential (GWP) and water scarcity footprint (WF), alongside economic performance. Both LCA and LCOS assessments are harmonized to a common functional unit (FU) of 1 kWh of electricity delivered to the grid over the system lifetime. Results show that while secondary-use batteries exhibit lower energy delivery efficiency and higher GWP per kWh delivered, they outperform primary batteries in water footprint and remain cost-competitive, with an LCOS of 0.422 \(\$/\text{kWhe}\) compared to 0.438 \(\$/\text{kWhe}\) for new batteries. Uncertainty and sensitivity analyses showed that round-trip efficiency (RTE) and depth of discharge (DoD) are the most influential parameters for energy output and losses, while rated storage duration is the most influential factor for LCOS. Grid emissions dominate GWP, while precursor production governs WF results. These findings demonstrate that ESS is an economically promising second-life application for repurposed LFP batteries, highlighting the importance of regional electricity mix in shaping sustainability outcomes.