This paper describes current trends in meteoritics and cosmochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiochemistry, and green chemistry, using selected research cases from the Vernadsky Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) in Moscow, Russia. Vernadsky Institute was founded in 1947 as a multidisciplinary research center to solve special problems related to the “Soviet atomic bomb project”. Since the last century, the Institute has been intensively involved in space programs exploring the Earth’s Moon, Mars, and Venus. It currently curates the collection of meteorites of the RAS and houses the lunar soil samples returned to Earth by Soviet automatic lunar stations Luna 16, Luna 20 and Luna 24 in the 1970s. Today, the Vernadsky Institute is one of the leading research centers of the RAS with a wide range of research topics and international collaborations. This paper represents an overview of the latest research achievements at the Vernadsky Institute and highlights the most spectacular research results over the last several years. We also illustrate modern approaches in green chemistry, featuring two examples of eco-friendly closed-cycle technologies—lithium extraction from ore materials and brines, and zero discharge seawater desalination.