The COVID-19 pandemic and ensuing lockdowns and economic disruption constituted a worldwide shock, pushing many people into poverty, prompting many governments to announce new social protection programmes. Responses varied considerably. Africa as a whole lagged behind other regions, but did so unevenly. South Africa and Botswana were among the countries whose governments introduced emergency measures quickly and effectively. The design of these emergency measures reflected local understandings of ‘need’ that contrast with understandings of ‘need’ among international organisations. Whereas international organisations tend either to disregard ‘need’ because individuals have a ‘right’ to social protection or to focus on the ‘need’ for a cash income among poor people specifically, African governments attach more importance to the needs of the community and nation. This means that they emphasise conditionality as well as targeting. Even South Africa, which has experienced the most far-reaching social and economic changes, is only a partial exception to this.