Nagorno-Karabakh is a region within the former Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan, populated mostly by ethnic Armenians, though separated from Armenia itself. When the Soviet Union disintegrated, Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh seized control not only of the district of Nagorno-Karabakh but also of six Azeri majority districts surrounding it, forcing most ethnic Azeris to flee, mostly to refugee camps elsewhere in Azerbaijan. In 1992, the CSCE created the “Minsk Group” to mediate the conflict, seeking a solution consistent with its normative principles. It also created a cease-fire monitoring group and a High Level Planning Group to prepare for a possible OSCE peacekeeping role, which never materialized. Over the following years, it organized conferences in Key West, Florida in 2001, which came close to reaching an agreement; in Madrid in 2007, which produced the Madrid “principles” for resolving the conflict; and in Kazan, Russia in 2011. However, none of these proposals received support in either Armenia, Azerbaijan, or both. In 2020, Azerbaijani forces attacked Nagorno-Karabakh and regained control of large portions of its lost territory; a cease-fire was brokered by the OSCE to be verified by Russian “peacekeepers.” In December 2022, large-scale violence broke out again, with Azerbaijan assuming full control of all of its territory. In spite of extensive efforts by the OSCE to mediate a mutually acceptable agreement, both structural and operational prevention ultimately failed to resolve the conflict, allowing the conflict to be settled by force rather than by a negotiated agreement.