The Rift in Belonging: Muslim Female Migrants in Kafir (Non-Muslim) Societies

The discourse surrounding Muslim female migrants in kafir (non-Muslim) societies has largely been dominated by region-specific analysis. This paper argues that it is more relevant to view how identity is negotiated through antithetical factors of religiosity and acculturation, conceptualising the experience of Muslim female migrants from various ethnic backgrounds, residing in various kafir nations within the framework of Barreto and Ellemers’s (European Review of Social Psychology 14:139–170, 2003) internal and external categorisation. This ‘zoomed-out’ perspective highlights patterns in thought across kafir societies, examining the continued influence of imperialist thought on the ‘Muslim woman’, exacerbating the ‘either/or’ mentality that surrounds the idea of ‘liberation’. As a result, their sense of belonging is bifurcated between their home and host country, inspiring a myriad of responses to this stigmatisation, ultimately upholding their religiosity as a core indicator of identity.