Dual Closures That Cause Biological Operators

Once atoms and molecules existed, a whole new dynamic entered the universe the moment the first cells appeared. What is different about cells is that they require energy to maintain their construction and be active. Their energy consumption produces waste products and heat that are released, or ‘dissipated’, into the environment. Cells are therefore dissipative structures. Recent research has shown that different types of cells live at the base of the tree of life. The best known are the bacteria. A second group are the archaea. How could these cells have formed in a chemical environment? And how, with bacteria/archaea as a base, could complexity continue to increase to protozoa, plants and animals? These are some of the fundamental questions explored in this chapter.