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Semiconductor photocatalysis is an emerging field in materials science due to its applications in solar energy conversion and environment remediation. Currently, most efficiently and conventionally studied semiconductor materials for photocatalysis are TiO2, ZnO, ZnS, CdS, WO3, Fe2O3, and Bi2WO4 (Gupta S, Tripathi M, High Energy Chem 46, 1–9, 2012; Xiang Q, Yu J, Jaroniec M, Chem Soc Rev 41, 782–796, 2012). Among all these, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most widely used photocatalyst due to its excellent properties, such as high stability in the aqueous media, low cost, relatively low toxicity, and excellent photocatalytic performance for the degradation of organic pollutants. In photocatalysis process, when a semiconductor is irradiated with photons of energy (hν) that is equal to or higher than the semiconductor band gap energy (hν ≥ Eg), these photons are absorbed by the semiconductor and create high energy electron–hole pairs. The photogenerated electrons and holes that migrate to the surface of the semiconductor without recombination can reduce and oxidize the reactants adsorbed on the semiconductor surface, respectively (Herrmann JM, Top Catal 34, 49–65, 2005). Therefore, suppressing the recombination of photogenerated electron–hole pairs and the efficient utilization of visible light are some of the main challenges before making these processes economically feasible (Fujishima A, Zhang X, Tryk DA, Surf Sci Rep 63 515–582, 2008; Kubacka A, Fernandez-Garcia M, Colon G, Chem Rev 112, 1555–1614, 2011). In order to overcome these drawbacks, previously, a lot of approaches have been explored to improve the photocatalytic performance of TiO2 under visible light irradiation. These approaches include doping with metals and nonmetals ions, dye-sensitizing, compositing of TiO2 with narrow band gap semiconductor, and so on (Hamal DB, Klabunde KJ, Klabunde, J Colloid Interf Sci 311, 514–522, 2007; Li M, Zhou S, Zhang Y, Chen G, Hong Z, Appl Surf Sci 254, 3762–3766, 2008; Wang J, Tafen DN, Lewis JP, Hong Z, Manivannan A, Zhi M, Li M, Wu NQ, J Am Chem Soc 131, 12290–12227, 2009; Tafen D, Wang J, Wu NQ, Lewis JP, Appl Phys Lett 94, 093101, 2009; Carp O, Huisman CL, Reller A, Prog Solid Stat Chem 32, 133–177, 2004; Wang J, Uma S, Klabunde KJ, Appl Catal B Environ 48, 151–154, 2004; Ahmad B, Kusumoto Y, Islam MS, Adv Powder Tech 21, 292–297, 2010, B 105:2815–2829; Park JY, Choi K, Lee J, Hwang C, Coi D, Lee J, Mater Lett 97, 64–66, 2013; Ambrus Z, Balazs N, Alapi T, Wittmann G, Sipos P, Dombi A, Mogyorosi, Appl Catal B Environ 81, 27–37, 2008; Weber AS, Grady AM, Koodali RT, Cat Sci Technol 2, 683–693, 2012; Kim W, Tachikawa T, Majima T, Choi W, J Phys Chem C 113, 10603–10609, 2009; Zhou W, Yin Z, Du Y, Huang X, Zeng Z, Fan Z, Liu H, Wang J, Zhang H, Small 9, 140–147, 2013).

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TiO2–Graphene-Based Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Application in Photocatalysis of Organic Pollutants

  • 章节

  • 发表日期：

    2025年

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  • N. R. Khalid,
  • M. Bilal Tahir,
  • A. Majid,
  • E. Ahmed,
  • M. Ahmad,
  • Sadia Khalid,
  • W. Ahmed

摘要

Semiconductor photocatalysis is an emerging field in materials science due to its applications in solar energy conversion and environment remediation. Currently, most efficiently and conventionally studied semiconductor materials for photocatalysis are TiO2, ZnO, ZnS, CdS, WO3, Fe2O3, and Bi2WO4 (Gupta S, Tripathi M, High Energy Chem 46, 1–9, 2012; Xiang Q, Yu J, Jaroniec M, Chem Soc Rev 41, 782–796, 2012). Among all these, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most widely used photocatalyst due to its excellent properties, such as high stability in the aqueous media, low cost, relatively low toxicity, and excellent photocatalytic performance for the degradation of organic pollutants. In photocatalysis process, when a semiconductor is irradiated with photons of energy (hν) that is equal to or higher than the semiconductor band gap energy (hν ≥ Eg), these photons are absorbed by the semiconductor and create high energy electron–hole pairs. The photogenerated electrons and holes that migrate to the surface of the semiconductor without recombination can reduce and oxidize the reactants adsorbed on the semiconductor surface, respectively (Herrmann JM, Top Catal 34, 49–65, 2005). Therefore, suppressing the recombination of photogenerated electron–hole pairs and the efficient utilization of visible light are some of the main challenges before making these processes economically feasible (Fujishima A, Zhang X, Tryk DA, Surf Sci Rep 63 515–582, 2008; Kubacka A, Fernandez-Garcia M, Colon G, Chem Rev 112, 1555–1614, 2011). In order to overcome these drawbacks, previously, a lot of approaches have been explored to improve the photocatalytic performance of TiO2 under visible light irradiation. These approaches include doping with metals and nonmetals ions, dye-sensitizing, compositing of TiO2 with narrow band gap semiconductor, and so on (Hamal DB, Klabunde KJ, Klabunde, J Colloid Interf Sci 311, 514–522, 2007; Li M, Zhou S, Zhang Y, Chen G, Hong Z, Appl Surf Sci 254, 3762–3766, 2008; Wang J, Tafen DN, Lewis JP, Hong Z, Manivannan A, Zhi M, Li M, Wu NQ, J Am Chem Soc 131, 12290–12227, 2009; Tafen D, Wang J, Wu NQ, Lewis JP, Appl Phys Lett 94, 093101, 2009; Carp O, Huisman CL, Reller A, Prog Solid Stat Chem 32, 133–177, 2004; Wang J, Uma S, Klabunde KJ, Appl Catal B Environ 48, 151–154, 2004; Ahmad B, Kusumoto Y, Islam MS, Adv Powder Tech 21, 292–297, 2010, B 105:2815–2829; Park JY, Choi K, Lee J, Hwang C, Coi D, Lee J, Mater Lett 97, 64–66, 2013; Ambrus Z, Balazs N, Alapi T, Wittmann G, Sipos P, Dombi A, Mogyorosi, Appl Catal B Environ 81, 27–37, 2008; Weber AS, Grady AM, Koodali RT, Cat Sci Technol 2, 683–693, 2012; Kim W, Tachikawa T, Majima T, Choi W, J Phys Chem C 113, 10603–10609, 2009; Zhou W, Yin Z, Du Y, Huang X, Zeng Z, Fan Z, Liu H, Wang J, Zhang H, Small 9, 140–147, 2013).