Introduction

Data, which refers to transmittable and storable computer information, has been an integral part of modern society ever since the invention of computers. Especially in the past decade, its indispensable role in various applications, ranging from marketing (Wedel and Kannan, J. Market. 80(6):97–121, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1509/jm.15.0413 ) to scientific researches (Felt, Big Data Society 3(1):2053951716645828 , 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2053951716645828 ), has been re-enforced by advances in data mining, machine learning, and artificial intelligence (AI) studies.