Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors, Immune Checkpoints and Tregs

Although the roles of selected immune checkpointsImmune checkpoint (ICs) in cardiovascular diseasesCardiovascular diseases (CVD) have been covered by excellent reviews from different angles, many related issues have never been reviewed and analyzed. Therefore, our comprehensive analytic chapter fills in this significant gap. This review consists of the following sections: (1) Introduction; (2) ICs’ cellular functions, tissue-specific and microenvironmentMicroenvironment-localized transcriptomic and posttranslational regulation of IC expressions, and ICs’ cross-talks withMetabolic reprogramming metabolic reprogrammingCD86; (3) 14 pairs of ICs regulate the pathogenesis of CVDs, includingCTLA-4 CTLA-4/CD86-CD80, PD1-PDL-1, TIGIT-CD155CD155, etc.; (4) ICs play significantCD80 roles in regulating Tregs, T cells, and innate immune cellsInnate immune cells in the pathogenesis of 25 types of CVDs; (5) Seven immunological principles provide guidelines for the future development of novel IC therapeuticsImmune checkpoint therapeutics for CVDs; and (6) Conclusion. Our on-time comprehensive analyses of recent progress and challenges have provided novel insights to improve our understanding of this significant topic and will facilitate the future development of novel therapeutics for CVDs.