Looking Back and Looking Forward: Evaluating the Typology, Explaining Patterns, and Effectiveness of Opposition

This chapter departs from the conclusion substantiated earlier in the book that in most, if not all, cases, opposition to populist parties in Europe is best conceived as Democratic Defence as Normal Politics. Reflecting on future research agendas, it discusses how research presented in this book can help to further understand the implications of the recent success of populist parties in Europe, and their transformation from a class of political pariahs into an integral part of Europe’s governing apparatus. Drawing on reflections from the country case studies, the chapter evaluates the Typology of Initiatives Opposing Populist Parties (IoPPs), pointing to a small number of ‘borderland cases’ which appear to have features of both tolerant and intolerant modes of engagement. Drawing further on arguments from the country case studies and other literature, the chapter then reflects on possible explanations for variation in patterns of IoPPs, including why intolerant IoPPs were rarely used against populist parties, why competing parties were more likely to use cooperative strategies than ostracism, when and how civil society actors opposed populist parties, and why international and transnational actors intervened in the domestic politics of opposition to populist parties. The chapter ends by reflecting on the application of theory developed elsewhere for studying the effectiveness of IoPPs.