Conclusion

This study underscores the importance of examining nationalism in the Ottoman Turkish context as a dynamic, multifaceted, and inherently ambiguous phenomenon. It demonstrates that there were numerous combinations available to the actors involved, that conceptual boundaries were continuously rearranged, outcomes were far from certain, and paths taken were highly contingent on rapidly changing Ottoman realities. Consequently, given the elements of continuity from empire to republic and the degree of conceptual overlap among various identity markers (such as “Ottoman,” “Muslim,” “Turk”) throughout, it is argued that we cannot speak of a singular, monolithic nationalism or national identity. Instead, the late Ottoman nation-building process has yielded a highly fluid mixture of discourses and policies capable of adaptation according to need and audience across different periods of modern Turkish history.