Science Discovers, Medicine Applies, Protection Lags, 1896–1902

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen’s discovery of X-rays is an archetype of modern science: a lone research worker in an esoteric field, observation of a phenomenon others had missed, feverish weeks of experimentation, a rush to publication, the enormous potential for applications beyond the narrow sphere in which the discovery originated, and consequent widespread public enthusiasm. But science had little to offer when it came to medical applications. They nevertheless developed rapidly between 1896 and 1900. X-ray protection was a minor concern, despite known biological effects, including effects on the X-ray operators themselves. Change would come rapidly after 1900, due to the combined effect of laboratory experiments, clinical accidents, and public outcry. Measures to protect the patient and the operator would become routine, even if inadequate by today's criteria. Methods of measuring the quantity and quality of the rays would come into general use. Operators who tested hardness (quality) with their own hands would be considered foolhardy at best. Professional societies and journals would actively promote precautions. While far from the precision it was to acquire in the decades to follow, X-ray protection would by 1903 be a recognized problem for science, medicine, technology, and society. In sharp contrast, radium protection was still unknown.