Consciousness and ASCs in the Non-West: Pioneering Studies

This is a brief review of traditional social anthropology literature in relation to consciousness and ASCs. Early pioneers who documented ASCs in non-Western rituals include Emile Durkheim and Lucien Levy-Bruhl. I explain the dominance of functionalism and scientific approaches which meant that ASCs were re-interpreted and disengaged from their religious context, and consciousness was not a focus of study. I discuss key developments which gradually opened up a pathway for acceptance of ASCs and non-Western forms of religion. These include a new method of data collection: participant observation, which is attributed to the anthropologist Branislaw Malinowski. The ‘Literary Turn’ is also pivotal. This was a period of soul-searching based on a concern to represent the researched as faithfully as possible. Key writers include James Clifford, George Marcus, and Clifford Geertz. This led to more documentation of the metaphysical including ASCs. A further ‘Ontological Turn’ emphasized the gap between Western and non-Western concepts and ways of understanding. There was also a gradual move towards study of the individual rather than the collective. I review some of the work of Erika Bourguignon and Felicitas Goodman who focused specifically on ASC experience. Finally I look briefly at studies combining anthropology and psychoanalysis.