Foundations

For their theoretical foundations, usage-based theories draw upon Dynamic Systems Theory and constructionist grammars. Dynamic Systems Theory posits that complex systems are complex, dynamic, open, self-organizing, adaptive, non-linear and emergent. A complex system is one with multiple components. A dynamic system is constantly changing. An open system exchanges energy with its environment. An adaptive system co-adapts with its environment. A self-organizing system reorganizes without any external central control. In a non-linear system, there is no direct relationship between cause and effect. A small impact can result in no change, a small change, or a very large change to the system. In an emergent system, multiple small changes accumulate to precipitate a phase shift. A language, which exhibits all of these features, can be considered to be a complex system. Construction grammars share three key features. The basic unit of analysis is the construction, which is a phonological or orthographic representation symbolizing a meaning. Constructionist grammarians do not distinguish between grammar and lexis. All language patterns are meaningful and can be placed on a continuum from abstract to concrete. In most constructionist grammars, constructions of all levels of specificity are represented in a constructicon.