Models of State Origins

In this chapter, I start by defining states as distinct from other forms of social organization such as paramount chiefdoms. I argue that key indicators of early states include the existence of major urban centers with kings, massive monuments, a codified language, standardized measurements and contracts, a state bureaucracy, and long-distance exchange. I then present select theories of early state formation related to agricultural intensification, irrigation, environmental circumscription, the territorial expansion of roving bandit-kings, and the transparency and appropriability of agricultural output. The kings or elites of such states typically controlled three major types of assets: religious capital, technological knowledge/human capital, and violence capital.