A Swift, Straightforward, and Innovative Approach for Detecting Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) in Aquatic Matrices Using Direct Immersion (DI) Three-Phase Single-Drop Microextraction (SDME) Coupled In-Line with Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)

The detection and quantification of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in water sources have become crucial due to their widespread use and potential environmental impact. In this study, we propose a swift, straightforward, and innovative approach for determining NSAIDs in a water matrix. This approach combines direct immersion (DI), three-phase single-drop microextraction (SDME), and capillary electrophoresis (CE). The DI-SDME technique offers several advantages, including simplicity, high extraction efficiency, and low organic solvent consumption. By immersing a microdrop covered with a thin layer of organic solvent into the aqueous sample, NSAIDs were selectively extracted into the organic phase, enabling their preconcentration and subsequent analysis. The developed method was validated using various NSAIDs, including ketoprofen (KTP), ibuprofen (IBU), and naproxen (NAP). The analytical performance was evaluated based on parameters such as drop size, extraction solvent, agitation speed, and extraction time, which showed excellent reproducibility. Due to the small dimensions of the acceptor and organic phases, quite high enrichment factors (EFs) of 470–730 were obtained from a 5-min DI-SDME at +25 ºC with stirring. The limits of detection (LODs) were found to be 1.3–3.8 nM, demonstrating the sensitivity of the method. In summary, DI-SDME combined with CE provides an innovative solution for determining NSAIDs in complex matrices with high sensitivity and selectivity while minimizing sample requirements compared to traditional methods – making it an appealing option for environmental monitoring or forensic toxicology applications where low levels may be present but are otherwise difficult to detect via conventional analytical protocols.