Effects of Anthropogenic Noise on Marine Zooplankton

Anthropogenic underwater noise is increasing in the oceans, making the establishment of sound exposure criteria for marine taxa imperative for protecting and managing a good environmental status of the seas. Zooplankton play a key role in the marine carbon cycle and act as linkage between phytoplankton and higher trophic levels. Still, studies of the effects of underwater noise on zooplankton are limited. This chapter reviewed 21 studies that found positive, negative, and no responses of marine holo- and meroplankton to continuous and impulsive underwater noise from experiments conducted in the laboratory, field, or both. The majority of the examined effects were related to development (28%), mortality (25%), and orientation and settlement (19%). Meroplankton (68%) were the most investigated zooplankton group. These studies indicated that both lethal and sublethal effects are stage- and species-specific. Variations were found in the implemented sound exposures, and a standardized manner in reporting sound levels is needed. Further studies combining laboratory and field experiments are required to establish sound exposure criteria for marine ecosystems, which can be used as international directives for underwater noise.