Conclusions

The 12 case cities show climate change and urbanization substantially impact water-related hazards. The mitigation strategies that each city has dealt with these hazards differ substantially, reflecting its complex nexus of social, ecological, and technological systems. Historically, uneven development and uncoordinated land use planning in developing countries have often resulted in city-wide high vulnerability to floods and droughts. In developed countries, vulnerable areas are also rooted in the historical development of the city, which is tightly coupled with economically disadvantaged and/or racially minoritized groups. Progress has been made in reducing water-related hazards through social learning by embracing ecological and social dimensions of vulnerability in recent years. However, there is still room for improvement in developing resilient, just, and equitable water-related hazard management strategies, given that climate-related water hazards may intensify in the coming decades.