Monitoring and Mass Trapping of Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in the Americas

Tephritid fly trapping methods for detecting, monitoring, and controlling these pests in the Americas have been studied extensively. These methods have been developed over several decades of research that has focused on the foraging behavior and specific responses of flies to visual and olfactory cues. This chapter reviews the main concepts related to trapping design, trap characteristics, and the status of traps and attractants that are currently used by growers and government agencies in different countries of the Americas to detect, monitor, and control the pestiferous species of Anastrepha, Ceratitis, Rhagoletis, and Bactrocera. In addition, new traps have been developed to improve attraction and selectivity, reduce costs, and increase the retention efficiency of these devices. Most attractants are based on food sources, pheromones, male lures (pheromone precursors), and host volatiles, but a far more detailed understanding is emerging of the roles of specific semiochemical compounds in fly attraction. Improvements have also been achieved in long-lasting attractants and controlled release devices for use in mass trapping. We review how specific factors such as the environment, crop type, fruit maturity, and the physiological state of the pest can interact with certain trap–attractant combinations to influence the efficacy of fruit fly trapping programs.