Early Case Studies in the United States

This is the first of eight chapters that look closely at case studies that include pre- and post-intervention data associated with the introduction of EI systems. The present chapter starts with the first publicly available evaluation, from the Oakland Police Department. Subsequent studies cover Metro-Dade, Miami-Dade, Minneapolis, New Orleans and the 42nd and 44th precincts in the New York Police Department. These studies are largely confined to two indicators, citizen complaints and use-of-force incidents. Although limited, these measures are considered key indicators of police conduct issues, and a downward trend is generally seen as most likely representing an improvement in the quality of police interactions with citizens. These studies, and the majority of the following studies, are also largely “within-group”, in that they do not involve classic scientific designs with matched control groups. Furthermore, the systems were all introduced in response to high-profile conduct problems as part of larger reform packages. This situation most likely further dilutes the direct impact of the system. Nonetheless, the study contexts suggest that the introduction of EI systems most likely exercised an influence on the reduced adverse indicators.