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<p>The transition to next-generation energy storage, specifically rechargeable batteries like sodium-ion, polyanionic, and all-solid-state batteries, requires optimizing complex architectures where light mobile ions (Z ≤ 11) migrate through heavy transition-metal frameworks. Although X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy are widely used for structural characterization, they face intrinsic limitations when visualizing light elements (Li, Na, H, O) and buried interfaces in bulk battery devices. As neutrons interact directly with the atomic nuclei via the strong force, neutron-based techniques offer a non-destructive and highly penetrating probe that overcomes many of these barriers. This review focuses on how neutron-based techniques make it possible to directly observe structural features that are often inaccessible to X-ray or electron probes but can critically influence battery performance. We capture how Neutron Powder Diffraction (NPD) locates sodium/lithium vacancies to map diffusion pathways, how neutron reflectivity (NR) quantifies the density and evolution of the <i>in situ</i> solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI), and how small angle neutron scattering (SANS) and neutron imaging (NI) reveal mesoscale porosity and macroscopic electrolyte wetting. By correlating these atomic-to-macroscopic insights with electrochemical data, neutron methodologies are summarized as guiding tools to establish specific material design rules for enhancing the rate capability and thermal stability of sustainable battery chemistries.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Evaluation of rechargeable battery materials using neutrons and muons: From atomic-scale ion transport to cell-level degradation

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月27日

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  • Shubham Lochab,
  • Prabeer Barpanda

摘要

The transition to next-generation energy storage, specifically rechargeable batteries like sodium-ion, polyanionic, and all-solid-state batteries, requires optimizing complex architectures where light mobile ions (Z ≤ 11) migrate through heavy transition-metal frameworks. Although X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy are widely used for structural characterization, they face intrinsic limitations when visualizing light elements (Li, Na, H, O) and buried interfaces in bulk battery devices. As neutrons interact directly with the atomic nuclei via the strong force, neutron-based techniques offer a non-destructive and highly penetrating probe that overcomes many of these barriers. This review focuses on how neutron-based techniques make it possible to directly observe structural features that are often inaccessible to X-ray or electron probes but can critically influence battery performance. We capture how Neutron Powder Diffraction (NPD) locates sodium/lithium vacancies to map diffusion pathways, how neutron reflectivity (NR) quantifies the density and evolution of the in situ solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI), and how small angle neutron scattering (SANS) and neutron imaging (NI) reveal mesoscale porosity and macroscopic electrolyte wetting. By correlating these atomic-to-macroscopic insights with electrochemical data, neutron methodologies are summarized as guiding tools to establish specific material design rules for enhancing the rate capability and thermal stability of sustainable battery chemistries.

Graphical Abstract