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Background <p>The rise of antibiotic resistance in infectious disease, particularly from carbapenem-resistant <i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i> (CRKP) and methicillin-resistant <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> (MRSA), poses a significant global health challenge. This study aimed to fabricate and evaluate a novel biocompatible hydrogel scaffold (Nio-PIN/STL@SC) incorporating niosomes loaded with α-pinene (PIN) and β-sitosterol (STL) to enhance antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities against MRSA and CRKP isolates.</p> Methods <p>Niosomes containing PIN and STL (Nio-PIN/STL) were prepared using the thin-layer hydration method and then incorporated into an alginate/gelatin hydrogel scaffold via a straightforward crosslinking reaction, forming Nio-PIN/STL@SC. The physicochemical properties of the scaffolds were characterized using DLS, SEM, TEM, and FTIR. In vitro assays assessed drug release, swelling, degradation, stability, cytotoxicity, antibacterial efficacy (MIC, disk diffusion, time-kill assay), anti-biofilm activity (CV assay, MBEC), and the expression of biofilm-related genes.</p> Results <p>The optimized Nio-PIN/STL@SC exhibited an average particle size of 263.5 ± 5.2&#xa0;nm, Polydispersity Index (PDI) of 0.231 ± 0.011, and entrapment efficiencies (EE%) of 78.2 ± 1.18% (PIN) and 79.7 ± 1.35% (STL). The scaffold demonstrated a sustained biphasic release profile, with only 40.85% of PIN and 43.25% of STL released over 72&#xa0;h at pH 7.4. Nio-PIN/STL@SC showed markedly enhanced antibacterial activity, with MIC values of 0.97–1.95&#xa0;µg/mL against MRSA and 0.97–3.9&#xa0;µg/mL against CRKP, representing at least a 16-fold reduction compared to free drugs. MBEC values revealed a significant reduction in biofilm biomass, decreasing viable MRSA and CRKP cells to approximately 2.0 and 3.5 log10 CFU/mL, respectively. qRT-PCR analysis demonstrated significant downregulation of <i>icaA</i> and <i>icaD</i> in MRSA and <i>mrkA</i>, <i>mrkD</i>, and <i>fimA</i> in CRKP (<i>P</i> &lt; 0.001), alongside upregulation of the biofilm repressor gene <i>icaR</i>.</p> Conclusions <p>The developed Nio-PIN/STL@SC hydrogel scaffold demonstrates a promising drug delivery system for the synergistic enhancement of antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities against multidrug-resistant pathogens like MRSA and CRKP with reduced cytotoxic effects, suggesting its potential for treating bacterial infections. Further in vivo studies are warranted to validate these findings.</p> Clinical trial number <p>Not applicable.</p>

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α-pinene and β-sitosterol co-loaded alginate/gelatin-functionalized niosomes for enhanced antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月16日

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  • Hoda Ghoraba,
  • Fatemeh Ashrafi,
  • Rezvan Mousavi Nadushan,
  • Hosein Abbaspour

摘要

Background

The rise of antibiotic resistance in infectious disease, particularly from carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), poses a significant global health challenge. This study aimed to fabricate and evaluate a novel biocompatible hydrogel scaffold (Nio-PIN/STL@SC) incorporating niosomes loaded with α-pinene (PIN) and β-sitosterol (STL) to enhance antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities against MRSA and CRKP isolates.

Methods

Niosomes containing PIN and STL (Nio-PIN/STL) were prepared using the thin-layer hydration method and then incorporated into an alginate/gelatin hydrogel scaffold via a straightforward crosslinking reaction, forming Nio-PIN/STL@SC. The physicochemical properties of the scaffolds were characterized using DLS, SEM, TEM, and FTIR. In vitro assays assessed drug release, swelling, degradation, stability, cytotoxicity, antibacterial efficacy (MIC, disk diffusion, time-kill assay), anti-biofilm activity (CV assay, MBEC), and the expression of biofilm-related genes.

Results

The optimized Nio-PIN/STL@SC exhibited an average particle size of 263.5 ± 5.2 nm, Polydispersity Index (PDI) of 0.231 ± 0.011, and entrapment efficiencies (EE%) of 78.2 ± 1.18% (PIN) and 79.7 ± 1.35% (STL). The scaffold demonstrated a sustained biphasic release profile, with only 40.85% of PIN and 43.25% of STL released over 72 h at pH 7.4. Nio-PIN/STL@SC showed markedly enhanced antibacterial activity, with MIC values of 0.97–1.95 µg/mL against MRSA and 0.97–3.9 µg/mL against CRKP, representing at least a 16-fold reduction compared to free drugs. MBEC values revealed a significant reduction in biofilm biomass, decreasing viable MRSA and CRKP cells to approximately 2.0 and 3.5 log10 CFU/mL, respectively. qRT-PCR analysis demonstrated significant downregulation of icaA and icaD in MRSA and mrkA, mrkD, and fimA in CRKP (P < 0.001), alongside upregulation of the biofilm repressor gene icaR.

Conclusions

The developed Nio-PIN/STL@SC hydrogel scaffold demonstrates a promising drug delivery system for the synergistic enhancement of antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities against multidrug-resistant pathogens like MRSA and CRKP with reduced cytotoxic effects, suggesting its potential for treating bacterial infections. Further in vivo studies are warranted to validate these findings.

Clinical trial number

Not applicable.