Background Kleptoplasty is the process by which functional chloroplasts from algae food sources are sequestered and retained by a host organism. Some sacoglossan sea slugs display this ability, enabling them to survive extended periods of food shortage, as they can obtain organic compounds from photosynthesis. While research has focused on the mechanisms underlying chloroplast retention and functionality, the contribution of the microbiome to kleptoplasty in these photosynthetic sea slugs is largely unexplored. In this study, we assessed the bacterial communities of Elysia viridis and Placida dendritica, two photosynthetic sacoglossan species that share the same habitat and macroalga food source, but exhibit distinct abilities to retain chloroplasts. Results High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed highly significant differences in bacterial community composition between E. viridis and P. dendritica. The sea slug E. viridis hosted a smaller and more specialized bacterial community, while P. dendritica supported a larger, more diverse, and generalist microbiome. Bacteroidota and Actinomycetota were the most dominant phyla in E. viridis (~ 92% of the total sequence reads), while Pseudomonadota (former Proteobacteria) was the prevalent phylum in P. dendritica (~ 66% of the total sequence reads). The dominance analysis revealed that one particularly dominant ZOTU, comprising 224,282 sequence reads (32.5% of total), was found exclusively in E. viridis that exhibits long-term retention of functional chloroplasts. According to BLAST search results, this ZOTU was related to the genus Fulvibacter (Flavobacteriaceae family), known for producing carotenoid-type pigments. These bacteria were not present in the microbiome of P. dendritica that shows short-term, non-functional, chloroplast retention. Conclusion This study provides novel insights into the microbial communities associated with photosynthetic sea slugs, highlighting significant differences in bacterial composition between E. viridis and P. dendritica. The identification of carotenoid-producing bacteria in E. viridis suggests a possible role in oxidative stress mitigation, and opens new perspectives on the relevance of the microbiome in supporting kleptoplasty. Further research is needed to characterize the functional contributions of bacterial taxa to chloroplast acquisition and maintenance in photosynthetic sea slugs.

Microbiome characterization of the sea slugs Elysia viridis and Placida dendritica: insights into potential roles in kleptoplasty

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2026年1月2日

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Patrícia Martins,
Paulo Cartaxana,
Sónia Cruz

摘要

Background

Kleptoplasty is the process by which functional chloroplasts from algae food sources are sequestered and retained by a host organism. Some sacoglossan sea slugs display this ability, enabling them to survive extended periods of food shortage, as they can obtain organic compounds from photosynthesis. While research has focused on the mechanisms underlying chloroplast retention and functionality, the contribution of the microbiome to kleptoplasty in these photosynthetic sea slugs is largely unexplored. In this study, we assessed the bacterial communities of Elysia viridis and Placida dendritica, two photosynthetic sacoglossan species that share the same habitat and macroalga food source, but exhibit distinct abilities to retain chloroplasts.

Results

High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed highly significant differences in bacterial community composition between E. viridis and P. dendritica. The sea slug E. viridis hosted a smaller and more specialized bacterial community, while P. dendritica supported a larger, more diverse, and generalist microbiome. Bacteroidota and Actinomycetota were the most dominant phyla in E. viridis (~ 92% of the total sequence reads), while Pseudomonadota (former Proteobacteria) was the prevalent phylum in P. dendritica (~ 66% of the total sequence reads). The dominance analysis revealed that one particularly dominant ZOTU, comprising 224,282 sequence reads (32.5% of total), was found exclusively in E. viridis that exhibits long-term retention of functional chloroplasts. According to BLAST search results, this ZOTU was related to the genus Fulvibacter (Flavobacteriaceae family), known for producing carotenoid-type pigments. These bacteria were not present in the microbiome of P. dendritica that shows short-term, non-functional, chloroplast retention.

Conclusion

This study provides novel insights into the microbial communities associated with photosynthetic sea slugs, highlighting significant differences in bacterial composition between E. viridis and P. dendritica. The identification of carotenoid-producing bacteria in E. viridis suggests a possible role in oxidative stress mitigation, and opens new perspectives on the relevance of the microbiome in supporting kleptoplasty. Further research is needed to characterize the functional contributions of bacterial taxa to chloroplast acquisition and maintenance in photosynthetic sea slugs.