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Abstract <p>This study investigates crack formation mechanisms in gradient layers composed of stainless steel 03Х17Н14М3 (AISI 316L) and aluminum bronze BraZh9-1 (UNS C61800), fabricated via direct energy deposition (DED). The objective was to identify the factors responsible for cracking in the Fe–Cu system and to develop mitigation strategies with potential applications in aerospace, mechanical engineering, and nuclear power industries. Three structural configurations were produced: two with bronze-to-steel mass ratios of 50&#xa0;:&#xa0;50 and 70 : 30, respectively, and one comprising sandwich-like architectures with alternating layers. Comprehensive characterization—including microstructural analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), mechanical testing with digital image correlation (DIC), fractography, and neutron diffraction (ND)—was employed. Results indicate that cracking arises primarily from mismatches in coefficients of thermal expansion and thermal conductivity, limited mutual solubility between Fe and Cu, formation of brittle intermetallic phases, and residual stress accumulation. Gradual compositional transitions (graded interfaces), as well as sandwich-type layering, substantially reduce crack susceptibility compared to sharp, abrupt material boundaries. To mitigate cracking, the following practical measures are proposed: (i) implementation of gradient transitions incorporating Ni-based intermediate layers; and (ii) optimization of DED process parameters—specifically, reduced laser scanning speed and preheating of the substrate. This work provides novel insights for the DED-based fabrication of gradient multimaterial composites and offers actionable engineering solutions to suppress crack formation.</p>

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Crack Formation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies in Gradient Composites of AISI 316L Stainless Steel and UNS C61800 Aluminium Bronze Fabricated by Direct Energy Deposition

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年8月1日

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  • K. I. Makarenko,
  • I. V. Shishkovsky

摘要

Abstract

This study investigates crack formation mechanisms in gradient layers composed of stainless steel 03Х17Н14М3 (AISI 316L) and aluminum bronze BraZh9-1 (UNS C61800), fabricated via direct energy deposition (DED). The objective was to identify the factors responsible for cracking in the Fe–Cu system and to develop mitigation strategies with potential applications in aerospace, mechanical engineering, and nuclear power industries. Three structural configurations were produced: two with bronze-to-steel mass ratios of 50 : 50 and 70 : 30, respectively, and one comprising sandwich-like architectures with alternating layers. Comprehensive characterization—including microstructural analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), mechanical testing with digital image correlation (DIC), fractography, and neutron diffraction (ND)—was employed. Results indicate that cracking arises primarily from mismatches in coefficients of thermal expansion and thermal conductivity, limited mutual solubility between Fe and Cu, formation of brittle intermetallic phases, and residual stress accumulation. Gradual compositional transitions (graded interfaces), as well as sandwich-type layering, substantially reduce crack susceptibility compared to sharp, abrupt material boundaries. To mitigate cracking, the following practical measures are proposed: (i) implementation of gradient transitions incorporating Ni-based intermediate layers; and (ii) optimization of DED process parameters—specifically, reduced laser scanning speed and preheating of the substrate. This work provides novel insights for the DED-based fabrication of gradient multimaterial composites and offers actionable engineering solutions to suppress crack formation.