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<p>In-use stocks capture a core dimension of material well-being by reflecting the tangible conditions of daily life. As such, they form a key component of composite well-being indices and offer a tangible alternative to monetary metrics that can be difficult to compare across regions. In this study, we introduce the cMAC–EEEs (city MAterial Cycles and MAnufactured Capital–Electronic and Electrical Equipment) database—a novel dataset that covers per-household stocks of washing machines, refrigerators, and air conditioners in roughly 300 Chinese cities from 1978 to 2021. With its unparalleled temporal and spatial coverage, this database provides an unprecedented opportunity to analyze the evolution of material well-being through the diffusion of household appliances. Our findings reveal an “S-shaped” growth trajectory in the diffusion of these appliances, while the disparities in their ownership across cities and the urban–rural divide follow an “inverted U-shaped” pattern. By 2021, nearly all households had access to washing machines and refrigerators, signaling a shift from poverty to broad-based prosperity; however, significant disparities in air conditioner ownership remain. This study highlights the indispensable role of our database in tracking well-being transitions and provides critical insights into strategies for addressing regional inequalities.</p>

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The road to prosperity: material well-being in China through the lens of an in-use stock database

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月9日

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  • Wanjun Wang,
  • José Lobo,
  • Laixiang Sun,
  • Kuishuang Feng,
  • Lulu Song,
  • Wei-Qiang Chen

摘要

In-use stocks capture a core dimension of material well-being by reflecting the tangible conditions of daily life. As such, they form a key component of composite well-being indices and offer a tangible alternative to monetary metrics that can be difficult to compare across regions. In this study, we introduce the cMAC–EEEs (city MAterial Cycles and MAnufactured Capital–Electronic and Electrical Equipment) database—a novel dataset that covers per-household stocks of washing machines, refrigerators, and air conditioners in roughly 300 Chinese cities from 1978 to 2021. With its unparalleled temporal and spatial coverage, this database provides an unprecedented opportunity to analyze the evolution of material well-being through the diffusion of household appliances. Our findings reveal an “S-shaped” growth trajectory in the diffusion of these appliances, while the disparities in their ownership across cities and the urban–rural divide follow an “inverted U-shaped” pattern. By 2021, nearly all households had access to washing machines and refrigerators, signaling a shift from poverty to broad-based prosperity; however, significant disparities in air conditioner ownership remain. This study highlights the indispensable role of our database in tracking well-being transitions and provides critical insights into strategies for addressing regional inequalities.