Beyond vulnerability in digital adolescents: extending the I-PACE model with social–emotional competence and microsystem predictors of Internet addiction

The rise of adolescent Internet addiction (IA) has prompted a growing need to explore its underlying mechanisms beyond individual vulnerability. This study draws on the I-PACE model and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory to examine how psychological traits and contextual factors jointly shape adolescent IA. Using a large-scale sample of 7121 middle school students in China (mean age = 14.24), we investigate how social–emotional competence (SEC), affective states, self-control, and microsystem-level factors—family support, peer support, and academic burden—interact to influence IA. Our model retains the core elements of I-PACE while integrating SEC as a key protective factor. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) reveals that SEC reduces impulsivity, which in turn lowers negative affect and enhances self-control, thereby indirectly mitigating IA. Contextual factors exert both direct and indirect effects: family and peer support bolster SEC and reduce emotional distress, while academic burden heightens impulsivity and emotional dysregulation. Serial mediation analyses confirm multi-step pathways linking environmental influences to IA through intra-individual processes. These findings advance the theoretical refinement of the I-PACE model by emphasizing the role of personal strengths and environmental supports. They also offer practical implications: prevention strategies should focus on cultivating SEC, strengthening supportive family and peer relationships, and addressing the impact of academic burden.