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<p>Advanced imaging and tracking techniques are needed to observe complex and dynamic immune interactions during viral infections, disease progression and therapeutic interventions. Traditional post-mortem ex vivo imaging techniques, such as immunohistochemistry coupled with microscopy on tissue samples, can only investigate static specimens and therefore fail to capture the dynamic nature of the immune system. By contrast, real-time, non-invasive and cellular-level in vivo imaging can enhance our understanding of immune-cell dynamics and aid the development of effective therapeutics and vaccines for cancer and infectious diseases. In this Review, we discuss modalities for molecular imaging of the immune system, with an emphasis on in vivo imaging techniques. We focus on advances in near-infrared II (NIR-II) fluorescence imaging of the immune system capable of low phototoxicity, high-resolution and non-invasive imaging with millimetre-scale tissue penetration. Finally, we discuss how challenges such as limited depth and multiplexing analysis may be addressed by integrating NIR-II modalities with existing imaging techniques, such as MRI and by applying artificial&#xa0;intelligence-driven automated multiplexed image analysis, advancing NIR-II imaging for immunological research and its potential translation to clinical settings.</p>

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In vivo imaging of the immune system

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月29日

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  • Yingying Jiang,
  • Tianbing Ren,
  • Shuang Zhao,
  • Ani Baghdasaryan,
  • Xiaobing Zhang,
  • Xiang Chen,
  • Feifei Wang,
  • Hongjie Dai

摘要

Advanced imaging and tracking techniques are needed to observe complex and dynamic immune interactions during viral infections, disease progression and therapeutic interventions. Traditional post-mortem ex vivo imaging techniques, such as immunohistochemistry coupled with microscopy on tissue samples, can only investigate static specimens and therefore fail to capture the dynamic nature of the immune system. By contrast, real-time, non-invasive and cellular-level in vivo imaging can enhance our understanding of immune-cell dynamics and aid the development of effective therapeutics and vaccines for cancer and infectious diseases. In this Review, we discuss modalities for molecular imaging of the immune system, with an emphasis on in vivo imaging techniques. We focus on advances in near-infrared II (NIR-II) fluorescence imaging of the immune system capable of low phototoxicity, high-resolution and non-invasive imaging with millimetre-scale tissue penetration. Finally, we discuss how challenges such as limited depth and multiplexing analysis may be addressed by integrating NIR-II modalities with existing imaging techniques, such as MRI and by applying artificial intelligence-driven automated multiplexed image analysis, advancing NIR-II imaging for immunological research and its potential translation to clinical settings.