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<p>The increasing demand for high-performance computing, artificial intelligence, and advanced communication technologies has accelerated the development of compact, energy-efficient, and multifunctional three-dimensional heterogeneously integrated (3-DHI) microelectronics. While such integrated circuits offer significant improvements in functionality and integration density, the compact and vertical stacking of heterogeneous components introduce significant thermal challenges. These result in non-uniform power densities, hotspot proliferation, thermal expansion mismatch, and narrowing heat dissipation pathways—all of which compromise device reliability, longevity, and performance by hindering heat removal within the package and to the environment. This review critically examines the thermal bottlenecks inherent in 3-DHI architectures and evaluates the effectiveness of current thermal management strategies, including embedded microfluidic cooling, interlayer heat spreaders, and through-silicon vias. Additionally, the article outlines future research directions focused on overcoming existing limitations and advancing the development of thermally efficient 3-DHI chips.</p>

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Thermal management of 3-D heterogeneously integrated microelectronics: challenges and future research directions

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年2月11日

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  • Manoj Kumar Sharma,
  • Bladimir Ramos-Alvarado

摘要

The increasing demand for high-performance computing, artificial intelligence, and advanced communication technologies has accelerated the development of compact, energy-efficient, and multifunctional three-dimensional heterogeneously integrated (3-DHI) microelectronics. While such integrated circuits offer significant improvements in functionality and integration density, the compact and vertical stacking of heterogeneous components introduce significant thermal challenges. These result in non-uniform power densities, hotspot proliferation, thermal expansion mismatch, and narrowing heat dissipation pathways—all of which compromise device reliability, longevity, and performance by hindering heat removal within the package and to the environment. This review critically examines the thermal bottlenecks inherent in 3-DHI architectures and evaluates the effectiveness of current thermal management strategies, including embedded microfluidic cooling, interlayer heat spreaders, and through-silicon vias. Additionally, the article outlines future research directions focused on overcoming existing limitations and advancing the development of thermally efficient 3-DHI chips.