<p>Mathematics is critical for academic and career success, yet many children experience ‘maths anxiety’, a pervasive emotional response that can hinder performance in and engagement with maths. In this Review, we examine how maths anxiety operates and develops, focusing on children (ages 4–17 years) because maths anxiety often begins to emerge in the early school years, and experiences during childhood and adolescence can shape long-term engagement and achievement in maths. We explore factors that contribute to and sustain maths anxiety within a three-level framework. At the individual level, we discuss the reciprocal feedback-loop model of maths anxiety, outlining the influences of biological predispositions, early maths performance, attitudes and beliefs, cognitive disruption and avoidance. At the interpersonal level, we examine how parents’ and teachers’ practices and beliefs shape children’s maths experiences and maths anxiety. Finally, at the sociocultural level, we consider how broader cultural and societal factors shape how children perceive and engage with maths. By bridging these perspectives, we clarify existing findings and chart a path to uncover how mechanisms operating within and between these levels jointly shape children’s experiences with maths.</p>