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Background: <p>Reproductive timing, including age at menarche and menopause, reflects endocrine health and long-term disease risk. Environmental conditions such as air pollution, groundwater chemistry, and land use may influence reproductive timing, yet evidence from India remains limited. This study evaluates associations between airborne fine particulate matter, groundwater characteristics, land use, and delayed menarche and earlier menopause among Indian women.</p> Methods: <p>We linked individual health data from the National Family Health Survey (2019–2021) with satellite-derived estimates of fine particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>), groundwater monitoring data from the Central Ground Water Board, and remote-sensing land use indicators. Late menarche among women aged 15–24 was analysed using logistic regression, and early menopause among women aged 30–49 using time-to-event models. Models accounted for demographic, socioeconomic, and geographic factors.</p> Results: <p>Exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub> above 40 μg/m³ is associated with a higher likelihood of late menarche (adjusted odds ratio, AOR 1.24) and earlier menopause (hazard ratio, HR 1.23), with stronger patterns in northern India. Groundwater arsenic concentrations greater than 0.01 mg/L are associated with delayed menarche (AOR 1.06) and earlier menopause (HR 1.14), while higher fluoride levels are linked to earlier menopause (HR 1.12). Combined exposure to elevated PM<sub>2.5</sub> and poorer groundwater quality increases the likelihood of deviations from typical reproductive timing. In contrast, greater surrounding green cover show lower likelihood of both late menarche and earlier menopause.</p> Conclusions: <p>Environmental conditions appear to influence reproductive timing among women in India. Improving air and groundwater quality and increasing green space may support healthier reproductive outcomes.</p>

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A cross-sectional study of environmental quality and the timing of menarche and menopause in India using national survey and environmental monitoring datasets

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月22日

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  • Aparajita Chattopadhyay,
  • Sourav Biswas,
  • Kathrin Schilling

摘要

Background:

Reproductive timing, including age at menarche and menopause, reflects endocrine health and long-term disease risk. Environmental conditions such as air pollution, groundwater chemistry, and land use may influence reproductive timing, yet evidence from India remains limited. This study evaluates associations between airborne fine particulate matter, groundwater characteristics, land use, and delayed menarche and earlier menopause among Indian women.

Methods:

We linked individual health data from the National Family Health Survey (2019–2021) with satellite-derived estimates of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), groundwater monitoring data from the Central Ground Water Board, and remote-sensing land use indicators. Late menarche among women aged 15–24 was analysed using logistic regression, and early menopause among women aged 30–49 using time-to-event models. Models accounted for demographic, socioeconomic, and geographic factors.

Results:

Exposure to PM2.5 above 40 μg/m³ is associated with a higher likelihood of late menarche (adjusted odds ratio, AOR 1.24) and earlier menopause (hazard ratio, HR 1.23), with stronger patterns in northern India. Groundwater arsenic concentrations greater than 0.01 mg/L are associated with delayed menarche (AOR 1.06) and earlier menopause (HR 1.14), while higher fluoride levels are linked to earlier menopause (HR 1.12). Combined exposure to elevated PM2.5 and poorer groundwater quality increases the likelihood of deviations from typical reproductive timing. In contrast, greater surrounding green cover show lower likelihood of both late menarche and earlier menopause.

Conclusions:

Environmental conditions appear to influence reproductive timing among women in India. Improving air and groundwater quality and increasing green space may support healthier reproductive outcomes.