Nano-agrochemical use in sustainable agriculture and environmental protection

Intensive reliance on conventional synthetic agrochemicals has been linked to environmental degradation and human health risks. Integrating nano-agrochemicals into agricultural practices could boost yields and reduce environmental footprints. In this Review, we evaluate the functions, market penetration, and benefits and risks of nano-agrochemicals in terms of crop productivity, environmental outcomes and human health. Nano-agrochemical formulations, primarily nanofertilizers and nanopesticides, are designed for targeted delivery and enhanced efficacy. Despite their promise, nano-agrochemicals currently represent <1% share of the global agrochemical market. Nanoformulations can boost crop yields by approximately 20%, largely through increased nutrient-use efficiency. However, their performance depends on environmental factors, such as soil texture, pH and ionic strength, which govern nanoparticle stability. Application methods (foliar versus soil) further interact with biological factors, including the above-ground and below-ground microbiotas, leaf and root exudates, and soil fauna, to influence nano-agrochemical bioavailability and uptake by plants. Nanofertilizers reduce nutrient leaching and nanopesticides minimize non-target toxicity, collectively reducing environmental and human health risks. Monitoring and regulatory frameworks remain highly heterogeneous across regions, with contrasting approaches in major agricultural producers, including the European Union, USA, China, Brazil and India. Future work should prioritize a universal ‘One Health’ assessment framework coupled with comprehensive life-cycle analyses to harmonize risk evaluation and guide the responsible global deployment of nano-agrochemicals.