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<p>Producing essential, widely used materials such as steel, cement, paper, plastics and rubber requires substantial freshwater resources, which may exacerbate water scarcity. Despite this, comprehensive research on freshwater embodied in material production remains limited. Here we assess the blue water footprint (WF<sub>blue</sub>) of 16 metallic and non-metallic material categories across 164 regions, using a multiregional input–output model and the hypothetical extraction method. Our findings indicate that the global WF<sub>blue</sub> of material production doubled from 25.1 billion m<sup>3</sup> in 1995 to 50.7 billion m<sup>3</sup> in 2021, raising its share in global blue water consumption from 2.8% to 4.7%. The East, South Asia and Oceania regions saw an alarming 267% surge in WF<sub>blue</sub> for material production, with China—already facing medium-high water stress—experiencing a dramatic ~400% increase. As material production is expected to grow, we underscore the urgency of a water–materials nexus approach, particularly in water-stressed countries.</p>

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Doubling of the global freshwater footprint of material production over two decades

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年10月30日

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  • Yao Wang,
  • Fengmei Ma,
  • Heming Wang,
  • Asaf Tzachor,
  • Meng Jiang,
  • Kai Fang,
  • Sai Liang,
  • Bing Zhu,
  • Edgar G. Hertwich,
  • Manfred Lenzen,
  • Heinz Schandl,
  • Stephan Lutter

摘要

Producing essential, widely used materials such as steel, cement, paper, plastics and rubber requires substantial freshwater resources, which may exacerbate water scarcity. Despite this, comprehensive research on freshwater embodied in material production remains limited. Here we assess the blue water footprint (WFblue) of 16 metallic and non-metallic material categories across 164 regions, using a multiregional input–output model and the hypothetical extraction method. Our findings indicate that the global WFblue of material production doubled from 25.1 billion m3 in 1995 to 50.7 billion m3 in 2021, raising its share in global blue water consumption from 2.8% to 4.7%. The East, South Asia and Oceania regions saw an alarming 267% surge in WFblue for material production, with China—already facing medium-high water stress—experiencing a dramatic ~400% increase. As material production is expected to grow, we underscore the urgency of a water–materials nexus approach, particularly in water-stressed countries.