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<p>Spatio-Temporal Fusion (STF) has been widely used across various remote sensing applications, including environmental monitoring, land cover change detection, and water resource management by integrating multi-sensor data with different spatial and temporal resolutions. The objective of this study was to generate spatially and temporally fine-resolution imagery and to evaluate the performance of multiple STF algorithms and Consistent Adjustment of the Climatology to Actual Observations (CACAO) post-processing for parcel-level crop monitoring. The study was conducted in a soybean field located in Anseong, South Korea, covering the entire soybean growing season from late June to early November. Near-daily Planet SuperDove imagery with 3&#xa0;m resolution was used to temporally enhance UAV images, which were acquired at 0.05&#xa0;m resolution but only at weekly to monthly intervals. Through the downscaling process, the UAV data were converted into a daily dataset with a target spatial resolution of 0.5&#xa0;m. Relative radiometric normalization was applied, followed by the implementation and comparison of four STF algorithms— Enhanced Spatial and Temporal Adaptive Reflectance Fusion Model (ESTARFM), Fitting, spatial Filtering and residual Compensation (Fit-FC), Flexible Spatiotemporal Data Fusion (FSDAF), and Variation-based Spatiotemporal Data Fusion (VSDF)—within a 4-fold cross-validation framework. CACAO post-processing was then employed to reconstruct temporally continuous Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) trajectories, from which the NDVI-based Vegetation Growth Metrics (VGM)85 and the EVI-based VGMmax were derived. The validation results indicated that ESTARFM achieved the highest NDVI performance among the evaluated algorithms, with a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.113 and the Universal Image Quality Index (UIQI) of 0.697. CACAO post-processing further improved these results, with CA-ESTARFM achieving an RMSE of 0.108 and a UIQI of 0.740, corresponding to a 4.4% reduction in RMSE and a 6.2% improvement in UIQI relative to the baseline ESTARFM. NDVI histogram and spatial analyses demonstrated that CA-ESTARFM achieved the most consistent agreement with UAV observations while preserving fine-scale spatial heterogeneity. In addition, intra-field vegetation assessment using NDVI-based VGM85 and EVI-based VGMmax showed that CA-ESTARFM remained consistent with simple linear interpolation of UAV observations while retaining finer spatial structure and reducing localized noise in the derived growth metrics. The proposed framework demonstrates strong potential for applications in comprehensive crop monitoring, precision agriculture management, and yield forecasting.</p>

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Generation of spatially and temporally fine-resolution imagery using STF algorithms and CACAO post-processing

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月30日

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  • Jaejun Gou,
  • Dongwon Kang,
  • Hyeokjin Lee,
  • Seongju Jang,
  • Inhong Song

摘要

Spatio-Temporal Fusion (STF) has been widely used across various remote sensing applications, including environmental monitoring, land cover change detection, and water resource management by integrating multi-sensor data with different spatial and temporal resolutions. The objective of this study was to generate spatially and temporally fine-resolution imagery and to evaluate the performance of multiple STF algorithms and Consistent Adjustment of the Climatology to Actual Observations (CACAO) post-processing for parcel-level crop monitoring. The study was conducted in a soybean field located in Anseong, South Korea, covering the entire soybean growing season from late June to early November. Near-daily Planet SuperDove imagery with 3 m resolution was used to temporally enhance UAV images, which were acquired at 0.05 m resolution but only at weekly to monthly intervals. Through the downscaling process, the UAV data were converted into a daily dataset with a target spatial resolution of 0.5 m. Relative radiometric normalization was applied, followed by the implementation and comparison of four STF algorithms— Enhanced Spatial and Temporal Adaptive Reflectance Fusion Model (ESTARFM), Fitting, spatial Filtering and residual Compensation (Fit-FC), Flexible Spatiotemporal Data Fusion (FSDAF), and Variation-based Spatiotemporal Data Fusion (VSDF)—within a 4-fold cross-validation framework. CACAO post-processing was then employed to reconstruct temporally continuous Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) trajectories, from which the NDVI-based Vegetation Growth Metrics (VGM)85 and the EVI-based VGMmax were derived. The validation results indicated that ESTARFM achieved the highest NDVI performance among the evaluated algorithms, with a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.113 and the Universal Image Quality Index (UIQI) of 0.697. CACAO post-processing further improved these results, with CA-ESTARFM achieving an RMSE of 0.108 and a UIQI of 0.740, corresponding to a 4.4% reduction in RMSE and a 6.2% improvement in UIQI relative to the baseline ESTARFM. NDVI histogram and spatial analyses demonstrated that CA-ESTARFM achieved the most consistent agreement with UAV observations while preserving fine-scale spatial heterogeneity. In addition, intra-field vegetation assessment using NDVI-based VGM85 and EVI-based VGMmax showed that CA-ESTARFM remained consistent with simple linear interpolation of UAV observations while retaining finer spatial structure and reducing localized noise in the derived growth metrics. The proposed framework demonstrates strong potential for applications in comprehensive crop monitoring, precision agriculture management, and yield forecasting.