<p>Axial load–settlement (<i>P</i>–<i>S</i>) curves govern pile serviceability checks and support performance-based foundation decisions, yet full static load tests to high load levels remain expensive and are often unavailable. This paper presents <span>PILE-Stack</span>, a physics-guided, monotone stacked ensemble that predicts the complete <i>P</i>–<i>S</i> response of single piles from routine site investigation inputs, including SPT–<InlineEquation ID="IEq3"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\sigma '\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation> depth profiles and pile geometry. The method combines mechanics-aware feature design with diverse level-0 experts and a monotone-constrained meta-learner, then applies a pile-wise isotonic projection that guarantees non-decreasing settlement with increasing load. The framework also quantifies uncertainty using quantile models that are calibrated with split-conformal prediction to obtain distribution-free prediction intervals. Evaluation follows a leakage-safe protocol using GroupKFold by <Emphasis FontCategory="NonProportional">PileID</Emphasis> and a disjoint 20% <Emphasis FontCategory="NonProportional">PileID</Emphasis>-wise holdout. On the external test set, <span>PILE-Stack</span> achieves <InlineEquation ID="IEq4"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(R^2=0.931\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>, RMSE <InlineEquation ID="IEq5"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(=8.62\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>&#xa0;mm, and MAE <InlineEquation ID="IEq6"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(=4.93\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>&#xa0;mm. Service-range accuracy remains stable (SMAPE<InlineEquation ID="IEq7"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(_{\text {service}}=50.2\%\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>, WAPE<InlineEquation ID="IEq8"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(_{\text {service}}=30.5\%\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>), while curve-level agreement is strong (mean normalized AUC error <InlineEquation ID="IEq9"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(=0.0886\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>; mean DTW <InlineEquation ID="IEq10"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(=5.60\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>&#xa0;mm). The monotonicity audit reports zero predicted violations. Conformalized intervals deliver near-nominal pile-wise coverage, stay tight at working loads, and widen logically as nonlinearity increases. Ablation results show that including a lightweight mechanistic base and expert diversity reduces RMSE by <InlineEquation ID="IEq11"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\sim\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>12% and MAE by <InlineEquation ID="IEq12"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\sim\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation>17% relative to a no-physics variant. The proposed approach produces accurate, mechanically admissible, and uncertainty-aware settlement curves from widely available SPT–<InlineEquation ID="IEq13"><EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\sigma '\)</EquationSource></InlineEquation> data, enabling direct serviceability screening when load tests are limited.</p>

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Physics-guided monotone stacking for reliable prediction of pile load–settlement curves using SPT–\(\sigma '\) profiles and geometry

  • Rupesh Kumar Tipu,
  • Meshel Q. Alkahtani,
  • Sagar Paruthi,
  • Samia Parvez

摘要

Axial load–settlement (PS) curves govern pile serviceability checks and support performance-based foundation decisions, yet full static load tests to high load levels remain expensive and are often unavailable. This paper presents PILE-Stack, a physics-guided, monotone stacked ensemble that predicts the complete PS response of single piles from routine site investigation inputs, including SPT–\(\sigma '\) depth profiles and pile geometry. The method combines mechanics-aware feature design with diverse level-0 experts and a monotone-constrained meta-learner, then applies a pile-wise isotonic projection that guarantees non-decreasing settlement with increasing load. The framework also quantifies uncertainty using quantile models that are calibrated with split-conformal prediction to obtain distribution-free prediction intervals. Evaluation follows a leakage-safe protocol using GroupKFold by PileID and a disjoint 20% PileID-wise holdout. On the external test set, PILE-Stack achieves \(R^2=0.931\), RMSE \(=8.62\) mm, and MAE \(=4.93\) mm. Service-range accuracy remains stable (SMAPE\(_{\text {service}}=50.2\%\), WAPE\(_{\text {service}}=30.5\%\)), while curve-level agreement is strong (mean normalized AUC error \(=0.0886\); mean DTW \(=5.60\) mm). The monotonicity audit reports zero predicted violations. Conformalized intervals deliver near-nominal pile-wise coverage, stay tight at working loads, and widen logically as nonlinearity increases. Ablation results show that including a lightweight mechanistic base and expert diversity reduces RMSE by \(\sim\)12% and MAE by \(\sim\)17% relative to a no-physics variant. The proposed approach produces accurate, mechanically admissible, and uncertainty-aware settlement curves from widely available SPT–\(\sigma '\) data, enabling direct serviceability screening when load tests are limited.