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<p>Sex differences in immune function arise from sex chromosome complement, which drives differential expression and activity of X-linked genes in immune cells, and gonadal steroids that transcriptionally regulate innate and adaptive immune cells through their respective receptors. These fundamental differences shape divergent outcomes between male and female individuals in viral and bacterial infections, post-acute infection syndromes and vaccine responses throughout the lifespan. Understanding these sex-specific immune mechanisms represents a critical frontier for developing novel therapeutic targets and advancing personalized medicine.</p>

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Sex differences in immune responses to viruses, bacteria and vaccines

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月30日

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  • Sabal Chaulagain,
  • Jennifer A. Liu,
  • Janet E. McCombs,
  • Sabra L. Klein

摘要

Sex differences in immune function arise from sex chromosome complement, which drives differential expression and activity of X-linked genes in immune cells, and gonadal steroids that transcriptionally regulate innate and adaptive immune cells through their respective receptors. These fundamental differences shape divergent outcomes between male and female individuals in viral and bacterial infections, post-acute infection syndromes and vaccine responses throughout the lifespan. Understanding these sex-specific immune mechanisms represents a critical frontier for developing novel therapeutic targets and advancing personalized medicine.