Guidelines for radiation-safe human activities on the Moon

The effects of harmful space radiation are one of the biggest concerns for future lunar explorers. Here, we use a data-validated model, the Radiation Environment and Dose on the Moon (REDMoon), to create mission schedules for different scenarios of lunar bases limited by radiation constraints. We consider habitats at the surface and subsurface of the Moon with different regolith and aluminium shielding using the last two solar cycles (2000–2022) as a baseline. The exposure due to background galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) is about 66% on the lunar surface than in interplanetary space and can even slightly increase beneath the surface before it decreases to a negligible value at about 3 m depth. If the shielding is insufficient, the surface dose during a single solar particle event could sometimes exceed annual GCR exposure, leading to an immediate replacement of the crew. Our work provides radiation-mitigation considerations for future human lunar bases and exploration cost estimates.