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<p>The Ming Great Wall in Beijing suffers from hidden voids, detachments, and moisture infiltration from long-term weathering and human impacts. Invasive diagnostics risk irreversible damage to this UNESCO site. This study developed a non-destructive 400 MHz GPR framework integrating attribute analysis and 3D imaging, validated through scaled physical models and field surveys at the Panlongshan section. Instantaneous amplitude enabled 3D reconstruction with 19.41% mean volumetric error. Strong empirical correlations (Pearson |<i>r</i>| = 0.79–0.92) link defect moisture content positively to RMS amplitude and generalised S-transform response, and negatively to central-frequency bandwidth and high-frequency (&gt;0.2 MHz) amplitude stability, achieving semi-quantitative moisture discrimination in 13 infill scenarios. While robust in controlled tests, these relationships require site-specific calibration due to material and environmental heterogeneity. The method provides accurate defect localisation and volume estimation for Ming masonry conservation; broader validation across diverse sections is recommended to confirm general applicability worldwide.</p>

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Non-destructive detection and three-dimensional imaging of internal defects in Beijing Ming Great Wall

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月28日

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  • Wei Qian,
  • Ruofei Wu,
  • Wenjing Tian,
  • Tao Zhang,
  • Ning Li

摘要

The Ming Great Wall in Beijing suffers from hidden voids, detachments, and moisture infiltration from long-term weathering and human impacts. Invasive diagnostics risk irreversible damage to this UNESCO site. This study developed a non-destructive 400 MHz GPR framework integrating attribute analysis and 3D imaging, validated through scaled physical models and field surveys at the Panlongshan section. Instantaneous amplitude enabled 3D reconstruction with 19.41% mean volumetric error. Strong empirical correlations (Pearson |r| = 0.79–0.92) link defect moisture content positively to RMS amplitude and generalised S-transform response, and negatively to central-frequency bandwidth and high-frequency (>0.2 MHz) amplitude stability, achieving semi-quantitative moisture discrimination in 13 infill scenarios. While robust in controlled tests, these relationships require site-specific calibration due to material and environmental heterogeneity. The method provides accurate defect localisation and volume estimation for Ming masonry conservation; broader validation across diverse sections is recommended to confirm general applicability worldwide.